Neural basis of language switching in the brain: fMRI evidence from Korean-Chinese early bilinguals

Using fMRI, we conducted two types of property generation task that involved language switching, with early bilingual speakers of Korean and Chinese. The first is a more conventional task in which a single language (L1 or L2) was used within each trial, but switched randomly from trial to trial. The other consists of a novel experimental design where language switching happens within each trial, alternating in the direction of the L1/L2 translation required. Our findings support a recently introduced cognitive model, the 'hodological' view of language switching proposed by Moritz-Gasser and Duffau. The nodes of a distributed neural network that this model proposes are consistent with the informative regions that we extracted in this study, using both GLM methods and Multivariate Pattern Analyses: the supplementary motor area, caudate, supramarginal gyrus and fusiform gyrus and other cortical areas. 

When language of instruction and language of application differ: Cognitive costs of bilingual mathematics learning

Bilingual education programs implicitly assume that the acquired knowledge is represented in a language-independent way. This assumption, however, stands in strong contrast to research findings showing that information may be represented in a way closely tied to the specific language of instruction and learning. The present study aims to examine whether and to which extent cognitive costs appear during arithmetic learning when language of instruction and language of retrieving differ. Thirty-nine high school students participating in a bilingual education program underwent a four-day training on multiplication and subtraction problems in one language (German or French), followed by a test session in which they had to solve trained as well as untrained problems in both languages. We found that cognitive costs related to language switching appeared for both arithmetic operations. Implications of our findings are discussed with respect to bilingual education as well as to cognitive mechanisms underlying different arithmetic operations.

When do dialects become languages? A cognitive perspective

Several definitions exist that offer to identify the boundaries between languages and dialects, yet these distinctions are inconsistent and are often as political as they are linguistic (Chambers & Trudgill, 1998). A different perspective is offered in this thesis, by investigating how closely related linguistic varieties are represented in the brain and whether they engender similar cognitive effects as is often reported for bilingual speakers of recognised independent languages, based on the principles of Green’s (1998) model of bilingual language control. Study 1 investigated whether bidialectal speakers exhibit similar benefits in non-linguistic inhibitory control as a result of the maintenance and use of two dialects, as has been proposed for bilinguals who regularly employ inhibitory control mechanisms, in order to suppress one language while speaking the other. The results revealed virtually identical performance across all monolingual, bidialectal and bilingual participant groups, thereby not just failing to find a cognitive control advantage in bidialectal speakers over monodialectals/monolinguals, but also in bilinguals; adding to a growing body of evidence which challenges this bilingual advantage in non-linguistic inhibitory control. Study 2 investigated the cognitive representation of dialects using an adaptation of a Language Switching Paradigm to determine if the effort required to switch between dialects is similar to the effort required to switch between languages. The results closely replicated what is typically shown for bilinguals: Bidialectal speakers exhibited a symmetrical switch cost like balanced bilinguals while monodialectal speakers, who were taught to use the dialect words before the experiment, showed the asymmetrical switch cost typically displayed by second language learners. These findings augment Green’s (1998) model by suggesting that words from different dialects are also tagged in the mental lexicon, just like words from different languages, and as a consequence, it takes cognitive effort to switch between these mental settings. Study 3 explored an additional explanation for language switching costs by investigating whether changes in articulatory settings when switching between different linguistic varieties could - at least in part – be responsible for these previously reported switching costs. Using a paradigm which required participants to switch between using different articulatory settings, e.g. glottal stops/aspirated /t/ and whispers/normal phonation, the results also demonstrated the presence of switch costs, suggesting that switching between linguistic varieties has a motor task-switching component which is independent of representations in the mental lexicon. Finally, Study 4 investigated how much exposure is needed to be able to distinguish between different varieties using two novel language categorisation tasks which compared German vs Russian cognates, and Standard Scottish English vs Dundonian Scots cognates. The results showed that even a small amount of exposure (i.e. a couple of days’ worth) is required to enable listeners to distinguish between different languages, dialects or accents based on general phonetic and phonological characteristics, suggesting that the general sound template of a language variety can be represented before exact lexical representations have been formed. Overall, these results show that bidialectal use of typologically closely related linguistic varieties employs similar cognitive mechanisms as bilingual language use. This thesis is the first to explore the cognitive representations and mechanisms that underpin the use of typologically closely related varieties. It offers a few novel insights and serves as the starting point for a research agenda that can yield a more fine-grained understanding of the cognitive mechanisms that may operate when speakers use closely related varieties. In doing so, it urges caution when making assumptions about differences in the mechanisms used by individuals commonly categorised as monolinguals, to avoid potentially confounding any comparisons made with bilinguals.

Code-switching and teaching Chinese as a second language

This book aims to explore the nature of code-switching. The purpose is to find out how this works and thereby inform language-teaching strategies. It focuses on Chinese / English bilinguals with special emphasis on younger students living in two linguistic worlds (Chinese and English). The book examines code-switching in relation to several aspects: grammatical structures, tonal facilitation, contextual factors, speakers' social background aspects and their participation in school language programs.

Code-switching: a touchstone of models of bilingual language production

The goal of the present thesis was to investigate the production of code-switched utterances in bilinguals’ speech production. This study investigates the availability of grammatical-category information during bilingual language processing. The specific aim is to examine the processes involved in the production of Persian-English bilingual compound verbs (BCVs). A bilingual compound verb is formed when the nominal constituent of a compound verb is replaced by an item from the other language. In the present cases of BCVs the nominal constituents are replaced by a verb from the other language. The main question addressed is how a lexical element corresponding to a verb node can be placed in a slot that corresponds to a noun lemma. This study also investigates how the production of BCVs might be captured within a model of BCVs and how such a model may be integrated within incremental network models of speech production. In the present study, both naturalistic and experimental data were used to investigate the processes involved in the production of BCVs. In the first part of the present study, I collected 2298 minutes of a popular Iranian TV program and found 962 code-switched utterances. In 83 (8%) of the switched cases, insertions occurred within the Persian compound verb structure, hence, resulting in BCVs. As to the second part of my work, a picture-word interference experiment was conducted. This study addressed whether in the case of the production of Persian-English BCVs, English verbs compete with the corresponding Persian compound verbs as a whole, or whether English verbs compete with the nominal constituents of Persian compound verbs only. Persian-English bilinguals named pictures depicting actions in 4 conditions in Persian (L1). In condition 1, participants named pictures of action using the whole Persian compound verb in the context of its English equivalent distractor verb. In condition 2, only the nominal constituent was produced in the presence of the light verb of the target Persian compound verb and in the context of a semantically closely related English distractor verb. In condition 3, the whole Persian compound verb was produced in the context of a semantically unrelated English distractor verb. In condition 4, only the nominal constituent was produced in the presence of the light verb of the target Persian compound verb and in the context of a semantically unrelated English distractor verb. The main effect of linguistic unit was significant by participants and items. Naming latencies were longer in the nominal linguistic unit compared to the compound verb (CV) linguistic unit. That is, participants were slower to produce the nominal constituent of compound verbs in the context of a semantically closely related English distractor verb compared to producing the whole compound verbs in the context of a semantically closely related English distractor verb. The three-way interaction between version of the experiment (CV and nominal versions), linguistic unit (nominal and CV linguistic units), and relation (semantically related and unrelated distractor words) was significant by participants. In both versions, naming latencies were longer in the semantically related nominal linguistic unit compared to the response latencies in the semantically related CV linguistic unit. In both versions, naming latencies were longer in the semantically related nominal linguistic unit compared to response latencies in the semantically unrelated nominal linguistic unit. Both the analysis of the naturalistic data and the results of the experiment revealed that in the case of the production of the nominal constituent of BCVs, a verb from the other language may compete with a noun from the base language, suggesting that grammatical category does not necessarily provide a constraint on lexical access during the production of the nominal constituent of BCVs. There was a minimal context in condition 2 (the nominal linguistic unit) in which the nominal constituent was produced in the presence of its corresponding light verb. The results suggest that generating words within a context may not guarantee that the effect of grammatical class becomes available. A model is proposed in order to characterize the processes involved in the production of BCVs. Implications for models of bilingual language production are discussed.

Universal codes from switching strategies

We discuss algorithms for combining sequential prediction strategies, a task which can be viewed as a natural generalisation of the concept of universal coding. We describe a graphical language based on Hidden Markov Models for defining prediction strategies, and we provide both existing and new models as examples. The models include efficient, parameterless models for switching between the input strategies over time, including a model for the case where switches tend to occur in clusters, and finally a new model for the scenario where the prediction strategies have a known relationship, and where jumps are typically between strongly related ones. This last model is relevant for coding time series data where parameter drift is expected. As theoretical contributions we introduce an interpolation construction that is useful in the development and analysis of new algorithms, and we establish a new sophisticated lemma for analysing the individual sequence regret of parameterised models.

A Simple Label Switching Algorithm for Semisupervised Structural SVMs

In structured output learning, obtaining labeled data for real-world applications is usually costly, while unlabeled examples are available in abundance. Semisupervised structured classification deals with a small number of labeled examples and a large number of unlabeled structured data. In this work, we consider semisupervised structural support vector machines with domain constraints. The optimization problem, which in general is not convex, contains the loss terms associated with the labeled and unlabeled examples, along with the domain constraints. We propose a simple optimization approach that alternates between solving a supervised learning problem and a constraint matching problem. Solving the constraint matching problem is difficult for structured prediction, and we propose an efficient and effective label switching method to solve it. The alternating optimization is carried out within a deterministic annealing framework, which helps in effective constraint matching and avoiding poor local minima, which are not very useful. The algorithm is simple and easy to implement. Further, it is suitable for any structured output learning problem where exact inference is available. Experiments on benchmark sequence labeling data sets and a natural language parsing data set show that the proposed approach, though simple, achieves comparable generalization performance.

Code-Switching Between Cultures And Languages : Creative connectivity

Problème: Ma thèse porte sur l’identité individuelle comme interrogation sur les enjeux personnels et sur ce qui constitue l’identification hybride à l’intérieur des notions concurrentielles en ce qui a trait à l’authenticité. Plus précisément, j’aborde le concept des identifications hybrides en tant que zones intermédiaires pour ce qui est de l’alternance de codes linguistiques et comme négociation des espaces continuels dans leur mouvement entre les cultures et les langues. Une telle négociation engendre des tensions et/ou apporte le lien créatif. Les tensions sont inhérentes à n’importe quelle construction d’identité où les lignes qui définissent des personnes ne sont pas spécifiques à une culture ou à une langue, où des notions de l’identité pure sont contestées et des codes communs de l’appartenance sont compromis. Le lien créatif se produit dans les exemples où l’alternance de code linguistique ou la négociation des espaces produit le mouvement ouvert et fluide entre les codes de concurrence des références et les différences à travers les discriminations raciales, la sexualité, la culture et la langue. Les travaux que j’ai sélectionnés représentent une section transversale de quelques auteurs migrants provenant de la minorité en Amérique du Nord qui alternent les codes linguistiques de cette manière. Les travaux détaillent le temps et l’espace dans leur traitement de l’identité et dans la façon dont ils cernent l’hybridité dans les textes suivants : The Woman Warrior de Maxine Hong Kingston (1975-76), Hunger of Memory de Richard Rodriguez (1982), Comment faire l’amour avec un nègre sans se fatiguer de Dany Laferrière (1985), Borderlands/La Frontera de Gloria Anzalduá (1987), Lost in Translation de Eva Hoffman (1989), Avril ou l’anti-passion de Antonio D’Alfonso (1990) et Chorus of Mushrooms de Hiromi Goto (1994). Enjeux/Questions La notion de l’identification hybride est provocante comme sujet. Elle met en question l’identité pure. C’est un sujet qui a suscité beaucoup de discussions tant en ce qui a trait à la littérature, à la politique, à la société, à la linguistique, aux communications, qu’au sein même des cercles philosophiques. Ce sujet est compliqué parce qu’il secoue la base des espaces fixes et structurés de l’identité dans sa signification culturelle et linguistique. Par exemple, la notion de patrie n’a pas les représentations exclusives du pays d’origine ou du pays d’accueil. De même, les notions de race, d’appartenance ethnique, et d’espaces sexuels sont parfois négativement acceptées si elles proviennent des codes socialement admis et normalisés de l’extérieur. De tels codes de la signification sont souvent définis par l’étiquette d’identification hétérosexuelle et blanche. Dans l’environnement généralisé d’aujourd’hui, plus que jamais, une personne doit négocier qui elle est, au sens de son appartenance à soi, en tant qu’individu et ce, face aux modèles locaux, régionaux, nationaux, voire même globaux de la subjectivité. Nous pouvons interpréter ce mouvement comme une série de couches superposées de la signification. Quand nous rencontrons une personne pour la première fois, nous ne voyons que la couche supérieure. D’ailleurs, son soi intérieur est caché par de nombreuses couches superposées (voir Joseph D. Straubhaar). Toutefois, sous cette couche supérieure, on retrouve beaucoup d’autres couches et tout comme pour un oignon, on doit les enlever une par une pour que l’individualité complète d’une personne soit révélée et comprise. Le noyau d’une personne représente un point de départ crucial pour opposer qui elle était à la façon dont elle se transforme sans cesse. Sa base, ou son noyau, dépend du moment, et comprend, mais ne s’y limite pas, ses origines, son environnement et ses expériences d’enfance, son éducation, sa notion de famille, et ses amitiés. De plus, les notions d’amour-propre et d’amour pour les autres, d’altruisme, sont aussi des points importants. Il y a une relation réciproque entre le soi et l’autre qui établit notre degré d’estime de soi. En raison de la mondialisation, notre façon de comprendre la culture, en fait, comment on consomme et définit la culture, devient rapidement un phénomène de déplacement. À l’intérieur de cette arène de culture généralisée, la façon dont les personnes sont à l’origine chinoises, mexicaines, italiennes, ou autres, et poursuivent leur évolution culturelle, se définit plus aussi facilement qu’avant. Approche Ainsi, ma thèse explore la subjectivité hybride comme position des tensions et/ou des relations créatrices entre les cultures et les langues. Quoique je ne souhaite aucunement simplifier ni le processus, ni les questions de l’auto-identification, il m’apparaît que la subjectivité hybride est aujourd’hui une réalité croissante dans l’arène généralisée de la culture. Ce processus d’échange est particulièrement complexe chez les populations migrantes en conflit avec leur désir de s’intégrer dans les nouveaux espaces adoptés, c’est-à-dire leur pays d’accueil. Ce réel désir d’appartenance peut entrer en conflit avec celui de garder les espaces originels de la culture définie par son pays d’origine. Ainsi, les références antérieures de l’identification d’une personne, les fondements de son individualité, son noyau, peuvent toujours ne pas correspondre à, ou bien fonctionner harmonieusement avec, les références extérieures et les couches d’identification changeantes, celles qu’elle s’approprie du pays d’accueil. Puisque nos politiques, nos religions et nos établissements d’enseignement proviennent des représentations nationales de la culture et de la communauté, le processus d’identification et la création de son individualité extérieure sont formées par le contact avec ces établissements. La façon dont une personne va chercher l’identification entre les espaces personnels et les espaces publics détermine ainsi le degré de conflit et/ou de lien créatif éprouvé entre les modes et les codes des espaces culturels et linguistiques. Par conséquent, l’identification des populations migrantes suggère que la « community and culture will represent both a hybridization of home and host cultures » (Straubhaar 27). Il y a beaucoup d’écrits au sujet de l’hybridité et des questions de l’identité et de la patrie, toutefois cette thèse aborde la valeur créative de l’alternance de codes culturels et linguistiques. Ce que la littérature indiquera Par conséquent, la plate-forme à partir de laquelle j’explore mon sujet de l’hybridité flotte entre l’interprétation postcoloniale de Homi Bhabha concernant le troisième espace hybride; le modèle d’hétéroglossie de Mikhail Bakhtine qui englobent plusieurs de mes exemples; la représentation de Roland Barthes sur l’identité comme espace transgressif qui est un modèle de référence et la contribution de Chantal Zabus sur le palimpseste et l’alternance de codes africains. J’utilise aussi le modèle de Sherry Simon portant sur l’espace urbain hybride de Montréal qui établit un lien important avec la valeur des échanges culturels et linguistiques, et les analyses de Janet Paterson. En effet, la façon dont elle traite la figure de l’Autre dans les modèles littéraires au Québec fournisse un aperçu régional et national de l’identification hybride. Enfin, l’exploration du bilinguisme de Doris Sommer comme espace esthétique et même humoristique d’identification situe l’hybridité dans une espace de rencontre créative. Conséquence Mon approche dans cette thèse ne prétend pas résoudre les problèmes qui peuvent résulter des plates-formes de la subjectivité hybride. Pour cette raison, j’évite d’aborder toute approche politique ou nationaliste de l’identité qui réfute l’identification hybride. De la même façon, je n’amène pas de discussion approfondie sur les questions postcoloniales. Le but de cette thèse est de démontrer à quel point la subjectivité hybride peut être une zone de relation créatrice lorsque l’alternance de codes permet des échanges de communication plus intimes entre les cultures et les langues. C’est un espace qui devient créateur parce qu’il favorise une attitude plus ouverte vis-à-vis les différents champs qui passent par la culture, aussi bien la langue, que la sexualité, la politique ou la religion. Les zones hybrides de l’identification nous permettent de contester les traditions dépassées, les coutumes, les modes de communication et la non-acceptation, toutes choses dépassées qui emprisonnent le désir et empêchent d’explorer et d’adopter des codes en dehors des normes et des modèles de la culture contenus dans le discours blanc, dominant, de l’appartenance culturelle et linguistique mondialisée. Ainsi, il appert que ces zones des relations multi-ethniques exigent plus d’attention des cercles scolaires puisque la population des centres urbains à travers l’Amérique du Nord devient de plus en plus nourrie par d’autres types de populations. Donc, il existe un besoin réel d’établir une communication sincère qui permettrait à la population de bien comprendre les populations adoptées. C’est une invitation à stimuler une relation plus intime de l’un avec l’autre. Toutefois, il est évident qu’une communication efficace à travers les frontières des codes linguistiques, culturels, sexuels, religieux et politiques exige une négociation continuelle. Mais une telle négociation peut stimuler la compréhension plus juste des différences (culturelle ou linguistique) si des institutions académiques offrent des programmes d’études intégrant davantage les littératures migrantes. Ma thèse vise à illustrer (par son choix littéraire) l’identification hybride comme une réalité importante dans les cultures généralisées qui croissent toujours aujourd’hui. Les espaces géographiques nous gardent éloignés les uns des autres, mais notre consommation de produits exotiques, qu’ils soient culturels ou non, et même notre consommation de l’autre, s’est rétrécie sensiblement depuis les deux dernières décennies et les indicateurs suggèrent que ce processus n’est pas une tendance, mais plutôt une nouvelle manière d’éprouver la vie et de connaître les autres. Ainsi les marqueurs qui forment nos frontières externes, aussi bien que ces marqueurs qui nous définissent de l’intérieur, exigent un examen minutieux de ces enjeux inter(trans)culturels, surtout si nous souhaitons nous en tenir avec succès à des langues et des codes culturels présents, tout en favorisant la diversité culturelle et linguistique. MOTS-CLÉS : identification hybride, mouvement ouvert, alternance de code linguistique, négociation des espaces, tensions, connectivité créative

Code-switching and transfer: an exploration of similarities and differences

This handbook article gives an historical overview of the development of research into code-switching and discusses its relationship to other language contact phenomena.

Towards a uniform approach to code-switching and borrowing

This is one of the first papers in which arguments are given to treat code-switching and borrowing as similar phenomena. It is argued that it is theoretically undesirable to distinguish both phenomena, and empirically very problematic. A probabilistic account of code-switching and a hierarchy of switched constituents (similar to hierarchies of borrowability) are proposed which account for the fact that some constituents are more likely to be borrowed/switched than others. It is argued that the same kinds of constraints apply to both code-switching and borrowing.

Using lexical diversity measures to operationalise language dominance in bilinguals

Treffers-Daller and Korybski propose to operationalize language dominance on the basis of measures of lexical diversity, as computed, in this particular study, on transcripts of stories told by Polish-English bilinguals in each of their languages They compute four different Indices of Language Dominance (ILD) on the basis of two different measures of lexical diversity, the Index of Guiraud (Guiraud, 1954) and HD-D (McCarthy & Jarvis, 2007). They compare simple indices, which are based on subtracting scores from one language from scores for another language, to more complex indices based on the formula Birdsong borrowed from the field of handedness, namely the ratio of (Difference in Scores) / (Sum of Scores). Positive scores on each of these Indices of Language Dominance mean that informants are more English-dominant and negative scores that they are more Polish-dominant. The authors address the difficulty of comparing scores across languages by carefully lemmatizing the data. Following Flege, Mackay and Piske (2002) they also look into the validity of these indices by investigating to what extent they can predict scores on other, independently measured variables. They use correlations and regression analysis for this, which has the advantage that the dominance indices are used as continuous variables and arbitrary cut-off points between balanced and dominant bilinguals need not be chosen. However, they also show how the computation of z-scores can help facilitate a discussion about the appropriateness of different cut-off points across different data sets and measurement scales in those cases where researchers consider it necessary to make categorial distinctions between balanced and dominant bilinguals. Treffers-Daller and Korybski correlate the ILD scores with four other variables, namely Length of Residence in the UK, attitudes towards English and life in the UK, frequency of usage of English at home and frequency of code-switching. They found that the indices correlated significantly with most of these variables, but there were clear differences between the Guiraud-based indices and the HDD-based indices. In a regression analysis three of the measures were also found to be a significant predictor of English language usage at home. They conclude that the correlations and the regression analyses lend strong support to the validity of their approach to language dominance.